The transition between El Niño and its counterpart, La Niña, is sometimes accompanied by a dramatic surge in phytoplankton productivity as upwelling of nutrient-rich deep water is suddenly renewed. During an El Niño (December 1997, left), upwelling in the equatorial Pacific slows, reducing phytoplankton density. In contrast, a La Niña increases upwelling in the same area, enhancing phytoplankton growth (December 1998, right). (NASA image by Jesse Allen & Robert Simmon, based on SeaWiFS data from the GSFC Ocean Color team. ) El Niño events influence weather patterns beyond the Pacific; in the eastern Indian Ocean around Indonesia, for example, phytoplankton productivity increases during El Niño. Productivity in the Gulf of Mexico and the western sub-tropical Atlantic has increased during El Niño events in the past decade, probably because increased rainfall and runoff delivered more nutrients than usual.
Phytoplankton can also be the harbingers of death or disease. Certain species of phytoplankton produce powerful biotoxins, making them responsible for so-called “red tides, ” or harmful algal blooms. These toxic blooms can kill marine life and people who eat contaminated seafood. Dead fish washed onto a beach at Padre Island, Texas, in October 2009, following a red tide (harmful algal bloom). (Photograph ©2009 qnr-away for a while. ) Phytoplankton cause mass mortality in other ways.
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Phytoplankton use up the nutrients available, and growth falls off until winter storms kick-start mixing. In lower-latitude areas, including the Arabian Sea and the waters around Indonesia, seasonal blooms are often linked to monsoon-related changes in winds. As the winds reverse direction (offshore versus onshore), they alternately enhance or suppress upwelling, which changes nutrient concentrations. In the equatorial upwelling zone, there is very little seasonal change in phytoplankton productivity.
Productivity is expected to drop because as the surface waters warm, the water column becomes increasingly stratified; there is less vertical mixing to recycle nutrients from deep waters back to the surface. About 70% of the ocean is permanently stratified into layers that don’t mix well. Between late 1997 and mid-2008, satellites observed that warmer-than-average temperatures (red line) led to below-average chlorophyll concentrations (blue line) in these areas.
Compared to the ENSO-related changes in the productivity in the tropical Pacific, year-to-year differences in productivity in mid- and high latitudes are small. Long-term changes in phytoplankton Productivity Because phytoplankton are so crucial to ocean biology and climate, any change in their productivity could have a significant influence on biodiversity, fisheries and the human food supply, and the pace of global warming. Many models of ocean chemistry and biology predict that as the ocean surface warms in response to increasing atmospheric greenhouse gases, phytoplankton productivity will decline.
This map shows the average chlorophyll concentration in the global oceans from July 2002–May 2010. View animation: small (5 MB) large (18 MB). (NASA image by Jesse Allen & Robert Simmon, based on MODIS data from the GSFC Ocean Color team. ) Differences from season to season Like plants on land, phytoplankton growth varies seasonally.
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They also require trace amounts of iron which limits phytoplankton growth in large areas of the ocean because iron concentrations are very low. Other factors influence phytoplankton growth rates, including water temperature and salinity, water depth, wind, and what kinds of predators are grazing on them.
(Graph adapted from Behrenfeld et al. 2009 by Robert Simmon. ) Over the past decade, scientists have begun looking for this trend in satellite observations, and early studies suggest there has been a small decrease in global phytoplankton productivity. For example, ocean scientists documented an increase in the area of subtropical ocean gyres—the least productive ocean areas—over the past decade. These low-nutrient “marine deserts” appear to be expanding due to rising ocean surface temperatures.
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